The commentary explains why this chapter begins here: among the sources of animal-derived poison, the snake is given prominence because its poison is considered especially powerful. The text therefore proceeds to teach how to recognize a person bitten by a snake.
After respectfully taking the feet of Dhanvantari—the greatly wise teacher learned in all the śāstras—Suśruta asks him a question.
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പാദയോരുപസങ്ഗൃഹ്യ പാദപതനം കൃത്വേത്യര്ഥഃ||൩||
Meaning of the commentary
The commentary explains pādayor upasaṅgṛhya as bowing down at the teacher's feet.
Key terms
mahāprājña
Greatly wise.
sarvaśāstraviśārada
One proficient in all the śāstras or learned disciplines.
pādayor upasaṅgṛhya
Respectfully approaching or taking the feet, explained as bowing at them.
Adhikarana ൩ (൪) · Śloka ൪
സര്പസങ്ഖ്യാം വിഭാഗം ച ദഷ്ടലക്ഷണമേവ ച |
ജ്ഞാനം ച വിഷവേഗാനാം ഭഗവന് ! വക്തുമര്ഹസി ||൪||
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सर्पसङ्ख्यां विभागं च दष्टलक्षणमेव च |
ज्ञानं च विषवेगानां भगवन् ! वक्तुमर्हसि ||४||
Meaning of the śloka
Suśruta asks the venerable teacher to explain the number and classification of snakes, the signs of a snakebite, and how the successive phases of poison are recognized.
The commentary identifies the subjects of Suśruta's question. Saṅkhyā means enumeration, vibhāga means division into distinct classes, and arhasi indicates that the teacher is qualified or able to explain them.
Key terms
sarpasaṅkhyā
The enumeration or number of snakes in the source's system.
vibhāga
Classification by separating into distinct groups.
daṣṭalakṣaṇa
Signs associated with a person who has been bitten.
viṣavega
A successive phase or wave in the source's account of poison.
तस्य तद्वचनं श्रुत्वा प्राब्रवीद्भिषजां वरः |
असङ्ख्या वासुकिश्रेष्ठा विख्यातास्तक्षकादयः ||५||
महीधराश्च नागेन्द्रा हुताग्निसमतेजसः |
ये चाप्यजस्रं गर्जन्ति वर्षन्ति च तपन्ति च ||६||
ससागरगिरिद्वीपा यैरियं धार्यते मही |
क्रुद्धा निःश्वासदृष्टिभ्यां ये हन्युरखिलं जगत् ||७||
नमस्तेभ्योऽस्ति नो तेषां कार्यं किञ्चिच्चिकित्सया |
ये तु दंष्ट्राविषा भौमा ये दशन्ति च मानुषान् ||८||
तेषां सङ्ख्यां प्रवक्ष्यामि यथावदनुपूर्वशः |९|
Meaning of the śloka
Hearing the question, the foremost physician replies that the celebrated great serpent rulers—Vāsuki foremost among them, including Takṣaka and others—are innumerable. They are portrayed as supporting the earth with its oceans, mountains, and islands, as brilliant as sacrificial fire, and as continually roaring, raining, and producing heat; when angered, they could destroy the whole world by breath and sight. The teacher pays homage to them and says that treatment has no role in relation to such beings. He will instead enumerate in due order the terrestrial, fang-venomed snakes that bite human beings.
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തസ്യ തദ്വചനമിത്യാദി| വാസുകിശ്രേഷ്ഠാ വാസുകിഃ ശ്രേഷ്ഠോ യേഷാം തേ തഥാ| അസ്തി നോ തേഷാം കാര്യം കിഞ്ചിച്ചികിത്സയേതി തേഷാം തക്ഷകാദീനാം ചികിത്സയാ കിഞ്ചിത് കാര്യം നാസ്തി| യേ തു ദംഷ്ട്രേത്യാദി| അനുപൂര്വശഃ അനുക്രമേണ||൫-൮||-
Meaning of the commentary
The commentary explains Vāsukiśreṣṭhā as those among whom Vāsuki is foremost. It takes the statement about treatment to mean that no therapeutic undertaking applies to Takṣaka and the other great serpent beings. The discussion then turns to snakes whose poison is associated with their fangs, and anupūrvaśaḥ means that they will be described sequentially. The cosmic powers attributed to the great serpents belong to the source's traditional account.
Key terms
Vāsuki
The serpent ruler named as foremost among the great serpents.
Takṣaka
One of the celebrated great serpent beings named in the passage.
daṃṣṭrāviṣa
A snake whose poison is associated with its fangs.
bhauma
Terrestrial or earth-dwelling in this classification.
The text gives a total of eighty snakes divided into five groups: darvīkara, maṇḍalin, rājimant, nirviṣa, and vaikarañja; the last are further described as threefold. It counts twenty-six darvīkaras, twenty-two maṇḍalins, ten rājimants, twelve nirviṣas, and three vaikarañjas, together with seven variegated maṇḍali-rājila snakes arising from vaikarañja lineage.
The commentary describes darvīkaras as hood-bearing, maṇḍalins as without hoods and marked by varied circular patterns, and rājimants as hoodless, striped, and mildly poisonous, with gamāla and others as examples. Nirviṣas are explained as lacking poison, such as dundubhi and gaurāhika; however, some interpret the prefix nir- here as meaning 'slight,' making them mildly poisonous rather than poison-free, by analogy with the expression anudarā kanyā. Vaikarañjas are said to be of mixed lineage, born from male and female snakes of different kinds. To complete the total of eighty, seven variegated descendants are counted—four maṇḍalins and three rājilas. The commentary prefers this reading because Jejjaṭa, Gayadāsa, and others accepted it. The competing interpretation of nirviṣa is preserved and remains clinically important.
Key terms
darvīkara
A hood-bearing snake in the source's classification.
maṇḍalin
A hoodless snake described as bearing varied circular markings.
rājimant
A hoodless snake described as bearing lines or stripes.
nirviṣa
Interpreted either as poison-free or, by some commentators, as only mildly poisonous.
पादाभिमृष्टा दुष्टा वा क्रुद्धा ग्रासार्थिनोऽपि वा ||१३||
ते दशन्ति महाक्रोधास्त्रिविधं भीमदर्शनाः |१४|
Meaning of the śloka
The text says that snakes may bite when stepped on or crushed, when naturally dangerous or angered, or when seeking food. Fierce in anger and frightening in appearance, they inflict bites described as threefold.
After briefly presenting the classification, the commentary introduces the causes of biting before explaining the signs of bites. Abhimṛṣṭa means pressed or crushed, duṣṭa means harmful by nature, and kruddha means angered. The word api also includes causes not expressly listed, such as being approached too closely, frightened, alarmed, or trodden upon. The snakes are called mahākrodha because of their intense anger and therefore bhīmadarśana, frightening to see. The phrase trividham refers to the threefold account of bites that follows.
Key terms
abhimṛṣṭa
Pressed, crushed, or stepped upon in this context.
duṣṭa
Described by the commentary as harmful by nature.
kruddha
Angered or provoked.
trividha
Threefold, referring to the bite classification introduced here.
The text distinguishes sarpita, radita, and a third, nirviṣa type; some authorities also recognize swelling produced by contact or a blow from a snake's body. Sarpita is described by one, two, or many deeply embedded tooth wounds with little blood, made as the snake pulls and twists away; they may have small raised structures, produce bodily disturbance, appear narrow, and be swollen. Radita is a shallow, scratched bite with blood-streaked lines that may be blue, yellow, or white, and is described as carrying little poison. A wound or wounds without swelling, with little vitiation of blood, in a person whose body, speech, and mind remain normal are called aviṣa. In a frightened person touched by a snake, fear-aggravated vāta may itself produce swelling; this is called sarpāṅgābhihata.
The commentary expands the threefold bite classification. Pada means a wound, and it claims that a greater number of tooth marks indicates progressively more poison. Nimagna means deeply set, while the snake makes the wounds by pulling and twisting. Cañcumālaka is explained as a covering of small pimple-like elevations; Gayadāsa instead describes cañcumālikās as poison-produced projections beside the bite resembling the tips of banyan shoots. Vaikṛtyakara means causing an abnormal condition, saṅkṣipta means small or narrow, and sarpita is very deep. Rājis are lines; radita is a shallow scratch and is therefore characterized as mildly poisonous. Prakṛtistha means remaining in one's normal state in body, speech, and mind. The final category includes swelling attributed to fear after snake contact, and the commentary adds that suspected poisoning may similarly arise after a thorn prick. These visual and psychological distinctions are historical and are not dependable measures of envenomation.
Key terms
sarpita
The deeply penetrating bite category described in the passage.
radita
A shallow, scratch-like bite category described as carrying little poison.
aviṣa
A wound classified by the text as lacking poison.
cañcumālaka
Small raised structures at or beside the bite, with two explanations preserved by the commentary.
sarpāṅgābhihata
Swelling attributed to contact or a blow from a snake's body and to fear-aggravated vāta.
व्याधितोद्विग्नदष्टानि ज्ञेयान्यल्पविषाणि तु |
तथाऽतिवृद्धबालाभिदष्टमल्पविषं स्मृतम् ||२०||
सुपर्णदेवब्रह्मर्षियक्षसिद्धनिषेविते |
विषघ्नौषधियुक्ते च देशे न क्रमते विषम् ||२१||
Meaning of the śloka
Bites inflicted by snakes that are ill, distressed, extremely old, or very young are said to contain little poison. The text also claims that poison does not advance in a place frequented by Garuḍa, deities, brahmarṣis, yakṣas, and siddhas, or in a place containing poison-counteracting medicines.
The commentary presents circumstances in which a snake's condition is said to make its bite less poisonous; daṣṭāni here refers to bitten food or prey sites. It then introduces places associated with distinguished divine beings or special medicines as places where poisoning is said not to occur. Suparṇa is identified as Garuḍa, while the other beings are understood by their familiar names. These are traditional claims and the commentary does not provide a reliable clinical method for confirming low venom delivery.
Key terms
alpaviṣa
Described as containing or delivering little poison.
Suparṇa
Identified by the commentary as Garuḍa.
viṣaghnauṣadhi
A medicine traditionally regarded as counteracting poison.
siddha
One of the classes of accomplished beings named as frequenting the place.
रथाङ्गलाङ्गलच्छत्रस्वस्तिकाङ्कुशधारिणः |
ज्ञेया दर्वीकराः सर्पाः फणिनः शीघ्रगामिनः ||२२||
मण्डलैर्विविधैश्चित्राः पृथवो मन्दगामिनः |
ज्ञेया मण्डलिनः सर्पा ज्वलनार्कसमप्रभाः ||२३||
स्निग्धा विविधवर्णाभिस्तिर्यगूर्ध्वं च राजिभिः |
चित्रिता इव ये भान्ति राजिमन्तस्तु ते स्मृताः ||२४||
Meaning of the śloka
Darvīkara snakes are described as hooded and fast-moving, bearing shapes like a wheel, plough, parasol, svastika, or elephant-goad. Maṇḍalin snakes are described as broad, slow-moving, variegated with many circular markings, and brilliant like fire or the sun. Rājimant snakes are described as smooth or glossy and appearing patterned by lines of varied colours running crosswise and upward.
The commentary says that these marks are introduced as signs used in the source for distinguishing darvīkara and the other groups for purposes of treatment. Rathāṅga means a wheel and lāṅgala means a plough; dhāriṇaḥ indicates bearing shapes resembling these and the other listed objects. Pṛthavaḥ means broad or wide. The descriptions remain features of the source's historical classification.
Key terms
darvīkara
A hooded, fast-moving class identified by emblem-like markings in the source.
maṇḍalin
A broad, slow-moving class described as bearing circular patterns.
rājimant
A class described as glossy and patterned with coloured lines.
rathāṅga
A wheel, one of the shapes said to occur among the markings.
lāṅgala
A plough, another shape used to describe a marking.
मुक्तारूप्यप्रभा ये च कपिला ये च पन्नगाः |
सुगन्धयः सुवर्णाभास्ते जात्या ब्राह्मणाः स्मृताः ||२५||
क्षत्रियाः स्निग्धवर्णास्तु पन्नगा भृशकोपनाः |
सूर्यचन्द्राकृतिच्छत्रलक्ष्म तेषां तथाऽम्बुजम् ||२६||
कृष्णा वज्रनिभा ये च लोहिता वर्णतस्तथा |
धूम्राः पारावताभाश्च वैश्यास्ते पन्नगाः स्मृताः ||२७||
महिषद्वीपिवर्णाभास्तथैव परुषत्वचः |
भिन्नवर्णाश्च ये केचिच्छूद्रास्ते परिकीर्तिताः ||२८||
Meaning of the śloka
The passage places snakes into four traditional social categories by appearance. Snakes shining like pearl or silver, tawny, fragrant, or golden are called brāhmaṇa. Smooth-coloured and intensely irascible snakes, bearing marks likened to the sun, moon, parasol, and conch, are called kṣatriya. Black, diamond-like, red, smoky, or pigeon-coloured snakes are called vaiśya. Those resembling a buffalo or spotted leopard, having rough skin, or showing mixed colours are called śūdra.
The commentary says that these verses describe how the brāhmaṇa and other traditional categories were identified. Lakṣma means a distinguishing mark, such as the cited solar forms, and ambuja is explained here as a conch. It quotes Vṛddha Vāgbhaṭa as adding marks on the hood resembling a half-moon, śrīvatsa, conch, discus, or plough. Dvīpī is glossed as citraka, a spotted leopard. These visual categories belong to the historical classification and do not provide reliable species identification.
Key terms
pannaga
A snake in this passage.
lakṣma
A distinguishing bodily mark used in the traditional classification.
ambuja
Explained by the commentary here as a conch-shaped mark.
dvīpī
Glossed as citraka, a spotted leopard, whose colouring supplies a comparison.
The text states that all phaṇin snakes aggravate vāta, maṇḍalin snakes aggravate pitta, and anekarāji snakes aggravate kapha. An offspring of parents belonging to dissimilar classes is said to display features associated with two doṣas, with those doṣas understood from the parental pair. The supplied verse is incomplete at its end.
The commentary explains that offspring of a male and female snake of unlike classes is called vaikarañja and is recognized by signs attributed to two doṣas. The final statement means that the two doṣas are to be known from its father and mother. The source numbering and closing wording are incomplete, so the precise continuation should be checked against a critical edition.
Key terms
phaṇin
A hood-bearing snake class in the source's taxonomy.
maṇḍalin
A snake class described through circular markings.
anekarāji
A snake class characterized by multiple stripes or lines.
vaikarañja
The commentary's name for offspring of snakes from unlike traditional classes.
dvidoṣakara
Described as producing or displaying the involvement of two doṣas.
Continuing an incomplete preceding statement, the passage says that striped rājimant snakes move about during the last watch of the night, maṇḍalin snakes during the other watches of the night, and darvīkara snakes by day.
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ഏഷാം മധ്യേ കേ കസ്മിന് കാലേ വിചരന്തീത്യാഹ- വിശേഷ ഇത്യാദി| പശ്ചിമേ യാമേ ചതുര്ഥേ പ്രഹര ഇത്യര്ഥഃ| ചിത്രാ അത്ര രാജിമന്തഃ| ശേഷേഷു പ്രഹരേഷു `രജന്യാ ഏവ’ ഇതി ശേഷഃ||൩൦-൩൧||
Meaning of the commentary
The commentary introduces this as a distinction concerning when the different classes move about. The last yāma is explained as the fourth watch. Citrāḥ here is interpreted as rājimant snakes, and the words 'of the night' are understood as carrying forward for the remaining watches. Because the opening belongs to a preceding passage, its exact syntax remains incomplete in the supplied source.
Key terms
paścima yāma
The final watch of the night, explained as the fourth watch.
rājimant
The striped snake class intended by citrāḥ in this passage.
maṇḍalin
A traditional snake class assigned here to the other night watches.
darvīkara
A traditional hooded-snake class said here to move by day.
The text identifies the life stage at which each traditional snake class is considered especially dangerous: young darvīkara snakes, old maṇḍalin snakes, and middle-aged rājimant snakes are described as causes of death.
The commentary says that the verse specifies the age or life stage associated with potent venom in the darvīkara and other classes. It reads the closing phrase simply as saying that snakes in those stated conditions become causes of death.
Key terms
taruṇa
Young, applied here to darvīkara snakes.
vṛddha
Old, applied here to maṇḍalin snakes.
vayomadhya
Middle-aged, applied here to rājimant snakes.
mṛtyuhetu
A cause of death in the verse's grave prognostic description.
The passage says that snakes troubled by a mongoose, immature snakes, snakes overwhelmed by water, emaciated or old snakes, those that have shed their skin, and frightened snakes are regarded as having less potent venom.
The commentary presents these conditions as reasons for reduced venom potency. Nakulākulita means harassed or distressed by a mongoose; vāriviprahata means especially struck down or overcome by water; and muktatvac means one that has cast off its skin. It concludes that frightened snakes too were considered to have less venom. This is a historical claim and does not establish a safe category of snake or bite.
Key terms
nakulākulita
Harassed or distressed by a mongoose.
vāriviprahata
Overcome or heavily affected by water.
muktatvac
Having recently shed the skin.
alpaviṣa
Described by the source as possessing less potent venom.
The passage enumerates named varieties within the traditional darvīkara, maṇḍalin, rājimant, and supposedly nonvenomous classes. It then lists three vaikarañja forms said to arise from pairings across the first three classes: mākuli, poṭagala, and snigdharāji. Mākuli is attributed to a kṛṣṇasarpa and a gonasī, poṭagala to a rājila and a gonasī, and snigdharāji to a kṛṣṇasarpa and a rājimatī, in either parental direction. One opinion says the first has venom potency like its father, while the latter two follow their mothers.
The commentary explains vaiparītyena as reversing the sex of the stated parental pairing; for example, a male gonasa with a female kṛṣṇasarpa. The same interpretation is carried through the later pairings. It advises learning unfamiliar regional snake names from snake specialists living in different regions. Addressing which parent determines venom potency in the mixed forms, it says that mākuli follows the father, identified as kṛṣṇasarpa, whereas poṭagala and snigdharājika follow their mothers, gonasī and rājimatī respectively. The text marks this inheritance account as the view of some authorities rather than a unanimous conclusion.
Key terms
darvīkara
One of the principal traditional snake classes, followed by a list of named varieties.
maṇḍalin
A principal traditional class associated with circular markings.
rājimant
A principal traditional class associated with stripes or lines.
nirviṣa
Classified by the source as without venom; this historical label is not a reliable safety determination.
vaikarañja
A mixed category said to arise through pairings between the principal classes.
viṣotkarṣa
Predominance or potency of venom, attributed here to one parent.
The passage lists seven further forms said to arise from the three vaikarañja snakes: divyelaka, rodhrapuṣpaka, rājicitraka, poṭagala, puṣpābhikīrṇa, darbhapuṣpa, and vellitaka. It says that the first three resemble rājila snakes in venom character and the remaining four resemble maṇḍalin snakes. With these, the text states that eighty kinds of snake have been described.
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വൈകരഞ്ജേഭ്യസ്ത്രിഭ്യോ ജാതാനാം ദിവ്യേലകപ്രഭൃതീനാം വിഷം കേഷാമനുയായി ഭവതീതി ദര്ശയന്നാഹ- ത്രയാണാമിത്യാദി||൩൪||
Meaning of the commentary
The commentary says that this passage indicates which established class the venom of the seven forms beginning with divyelaka is believed to follow. It supplies no further identification or explanation of the individual names.
Key terms
vaikarañja
The mixed snake category from which these seven forms are said to arise.
rājilavat
Having venom characteristics likened to the rājila or striped class.
maṇḍalivat
Having venom characteristics likened to the maṇḍalin class.
aśīti
Eighty, the total number of snake kinds claimed after this enumeration.
The passage gives a traditional sex classification of snakes by bodily features. Those with large eyes, tongue, mouth, and head are called male; those with small versions of these features are called female; and those said to combine both sets of features, have mild venom, and lack anger are called napuṃsaka.
The commentary only introduces the statement as a description of the characteristics by which male and other sex categories of snakes were identified. It offers no further reasoning or qualification.
Key terms
pumāṃs
Male, assigned here through the source's large-feature description.
strī
Female, assigned here through the source's small-feature description.
ubhayalakṣaṇa
Described as possessing characteristics of both categories.
napuṃsaka
A third category in the source's traditional classification.
The text says that the signs of bites from all snakes will be described under general headings. It explains that poison acts swiftly, like a sharp sword, a thunderbolt, or fire, and that even brief neglect may kill the patient. Because there is no time for a lengthy account of the signs of every individual snake, the signs are presented in three groups. This threefold description is said to serve the patient's welfare, prevent confusion, and include the distinguishing features of all snakes.
The commentary explains the comparisons: niśita-nistriṃśa is a sharp sword, aśani is a thunderbolt, and hutavaha is fire; deśya means comparable to these. Āśukārin means rapidly spreading, and atipātayati means killing quickly. Avakāśa is delay in time and upasartum means to follow or set out in detail. The author therefore does not give separate bite signs for every snake. The threefold system is intended to keep the physician from confusion, supported by the saying that those of limited understanding become confused by excessive detail.
Key terms
āśukārin
Acting or spreading rapidly.
daṣṭalakṣaṇa
Signs associated with a snakebite.
traividhya
The threefold grouping used to organize the bite signs.
asammohakara
Intended to prevent confusion, especially for the physician.
The passage assigns characteristic groups of signs to three traditional snake classes. Darvīkara poisoning is associated with darkening of the skin, eyes, nails, teeth, mouth, excreta, and bite, dryness, heaviness of the head, joint pain, weakness of the waist, back, and neck, yawning, tremor, impaired voice, indistinct rattling sounds, immobility, dry belching, cough, difficult breathing, hiccup, upward movement of vāyu, twisting pain, thirst, salivation, foam, obstruction of channels, and various vāta pains. Maṇḍalin poisoning is associated with yellow discoloration, desire for cold, generalized heat, burning, thirst, intoxication-like disturbance, fainting, fever, bleeding upward and downward, tissue breakdown, swelling, decay at the bite, yellow vision, rapid aggravation, and pitta-type pains. Rājimat poisoning is associated with pallor, cold fever, horripilation, stiffness, swelling around the bite, thick kapha discharge, repeated vomiting, itching of the eyes, throat swelling, indistinct sounds, obstructed breathing, darkness of vision, and kapha-type pains.
The commentary says that general signs for the three snake groups help one understand their particular features. For darvīkara it explains svarāvasāda as voice impairment, ghurghuraka as an indistinct sound resembling a cat, jaḍatā as lack of movement, śūlodveṣṭana as bodily twisting from pain, and vāta pains as sensations such as piercing and splitting. For maṇḍalin, paridhūpana is heat throughout the body, mada resembles intoxication after chewing areca nut, avasātana is tissue sloughing or dissolution, daṃśakotha is putrefactive change at the bite, and pītarūpadarśana is seeing everything as yellow; its pitta pains include heating and burning sensations. For rājimat, ādaṃśaśopha is swelling all around the bite, praseka is discharge, ghurghuraka is an indistinct sound, tamas is darkness, and the kapha-type manifestations include itching and related signs.
Key terms
darvīkara
One of the three traditional snake groups, linked here with vāta-pattern signs.
maṇḍalin
One of the three traditional snake groups, linked here with pitta-pattern signs.
rājimat
One of the three traditional snake groups, linked here with kapha-pattern signs.
ghurghuraka
An indistinct rattling or cat-like sound described among the signs.
The text associates different signs with bites attributed to male, female, neuter, pregnant, recently delivered, feeding, old, young, nonvenomous, and 'blind' snakes. It says that a person bitten by a male looks upward; one bitten by a female looks downward and develops prominent forehead vessels; and one bitten by a neuter snake looks sideways. A bite from a pregnant snake is associated with a pale, swollen face, while one from a recently delivered snake is associated with abdominal pain, bloody urination, and a small swelling beneath the tongue. A bite from a snake seeking food produces desire for food; signs from an old snake arise slowly and mildly, while those from a young snake arise quickly and mildly. A nonvenomous snake causes no signs of poison. Some say a bite from a blind snake causes blindness. A python is said to take body and life by swallowing rather than by venom. A person bitten by a snake described as immediately fatal falls to the ground as if struck by a weapon or thunderbolt, with limp limbs and loss of consciousness.
The commentary links the verbs 'looks' with the preceding upward and downward directions. It explains sūtikā as a snake that has recently delivered and mehati as urinates. With an old snake the waves of poisoning are delayed and mild. Regarding the 'blind snake,' some authorities report blindness after its bite, while others place it in the nonvenomous discussion and regard it as nonvenomous. One tradition identifies andhāhi as a water-burrow dweller, while another regards it as a different creature; the identification therefore remains disputed. The python is understood to destroy the body and life through swallowing, not through poison.
Key terms
sūtikā
A female snake described as having recently delivered.
nirviṣa
Nonvenomous in the source's classification.
andhāhi
A disputed snake designation; its identity and venomous status vary in the commentary.
The text describes seven successive waves of poison for each of the three traditional snake groups. In darvīkara poisoning, it says the first wave disorders blood, causing darkening and a crawling sensation; the second affects flesh, causing marked darkening, swelling, and nodules; the third affects medas, causing moisture at the bite, heaviness of the head, sweating, and impaired vision; the fourth enters the internal cavity and disturbs predominantly kapha doṣas, causing drowsiness, salivation, and looseness of the joints; the fifth enters bone and disturbs prāṇa and agni, causing joint pain, hiccup, and burning; the sixth enters marrow and severely disturbs grahaṇī, causing bodily heaviness, diarrhea, chest or heart-region pain, and fainting; the seventh enters śukra, greatly agitates vyāna, and dislodges kapha from subtle channels, causing a plug of mucus, collapse of the waist and back, loss of all movement, excessive saliva and sweat, and obstructed breathing. For maṇḍalin, the first five waves are described through yellow discoloration, burning, swelling, thirst, bite moisture, sweating, visual impairment, fever, and generalized burning, with the sixth and seventh as above. For rājimat, the first five include pallor, horripilation, stiffness, head swelling, visual impairment, bite moisture, sweating, nasal and eye discharge, neck stiffness, heaviness of the head, impaired speech, and cold fever, with the sixth and seventh again as above.
The commentary defines vega as a wave or movement of poison. It explains cakṣurgrahaṇa as obstruction of vision and grahaṇī as the pitta-bearing layer. The phrase 'as before' means that the sixth- and seventh-wave signs described for darvīkara also apply to maṇḍalin, and the same extension is to be understood for rājimat.
Key terms
viṣavega
A successive wave or movement of poison in the text's model.
cakṣurgrahaṇa
Obstruction or impairment of vision.
grahaṇī
Explained by the commentary as the pitta-bearing layer.
To explain why there are exactly seven waves, the commentary interprets dhātvantara as the intervals between dhātus and says that mention of dhātu also indicates the related receptacles. The seven kalās previously described in the account of embryology mark boundaries between dhātus or receptacles. Crossing the layer between rasa and rakta produces the first wave in rakta; crossing those between rakta and māṃsa, māṃsa and medas, medas and kapha, kapha and purīṣa, purīṣa and pitta, and pitta and śukra produces the second through seventh waves respectively. It reconciles the fifth wave entering bone by identifying the purīṣa-bearing layer with the bone-bearing layer, and the sixth entering marrow by identifying the pitta-bearing layer with the marrow-bearing layer.
Key terms
kalā
A bodily layer or boundary used here to explain successive poison waves.
dhātu
A bodily constituent whose intervals are traversed in the commentary's model.
rasarakta (rasa-rakta)
Rasa and blood, between which the first relevant layer is situated.
purīṣadharā
The excrement-bearing layer, identified here also with the bone-bearing layer.
The verse defines the interval between poison waves as the time in which poison, described as death-like and carried by samīraṇa, breaks through a kalā.
After defining a wave, the commentary explains the interval between waves. Yenāntareṇa means the period of time; kalā is the previously described bodily layer; kālakalpa describes poison as resembling death; and the poison is said to be propelled by vāyu. The time it takes to pierce that layer is the interval between the wave that has passed and the one that is to come.
Key terms
vegāntara
The interval between one poison wave and the next.
kālakalpa
Death-like, used here to characterize poison.
samīraṇa
Vāyu, described as carrying or propelling the poison.
kalā
The bodily layer said to be crossed between waves.
The verses describe poison waves in animals and birds. In a quadruped, the first is associated with swollen limbs, dejection, and distress; the second with salivation, darkening of the body, and pain in the heart region; the third with head pain and collapse or weakness of the throat and neck; and the fourth with trembling, confusion, biting or grinding the teeth, and death. Some authorities instead describe only three waves and regard the third as the end. In a bird, the first wave brings dejection, followed by confusion; the second is described as severe distress and the third as death. Some recognize only one poison wave in birds. The text says poison does not progress greatly in cats, mongooses, and similar animals.
The commentary says that, after discussing seven poison waves in humans, the passage states their number in quadrupeds and birds. It glosses hṛṣṭāṅga in a variant reading as having the body bristling or raised. It preserves the view that there are three waves in quadrupeds and notes that some teachers do not read the portion beginning 'the bird is dejected in the first wave.' These differences in wave count and textual inclusion remain distinct rather than being resolved into one account.
Key terms
paśu
A quadruped or animal in this passage.
pakṣin
A bird whose poisoning is described in successive stages.
viṣavega
A stated wave or stage of poisoning.
nakula
Mongoose, included among animals said to be less affected.
The commentary's colophon states that the fourth chapter of the Kalpasthāna is complete in Dalhaṇa's explanation of the Suśruta Saṃhitā called the Nibandhasaṅgraha. The source preserves a spelling variation in Dalhaṇa's name.
Key terms
Kalpasthāna
The section of the Suśruta Saṃhitā in which the chapter occurs.
Sarpadaṣṭaviṣavijñānīya
The chapter title, concerning knowledge of poison in snakebite.
Nibandhasaṅgraha
The title of Dalhaṇa's commentary on the Suśruta Saṃhitā.
Dalhaṇa
The commentator named in the colophon, with a spelling variant in the source.